Since 1900, mathematics scores have increased for most White students, while the scores of African American and Hispanic students have not significantly improved (Acherman-Chor, 2003), and they had showed lower mathematical achievement than the average performance level of American students (Kim & Chang, 2010). In addition, in 2003 the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) reported that students in 23 countries demonstrated higher performance than U.S. students along with the 29 OECD countries that took part in the international assessments on mathematics (cited by Kim & Chang, 2010).
Learning Mathematical English is difficult due to its specialized, low-frequency vocabulary and its abstract concepts. Math vocabulary is not regularly used in daily settings. Compounding the low-frequency of the math vocabulary and the abstract concepts it represents, is the ambiguity of mathematical terms that a second language learner may have trouble comprehending. An example of these would be the following terms: pi for pie, hole for whole, pear for pair, table (furniture) for table (chart). The other challenges of understanding mathematical texts are its specialized syntax which is highly complex and specific, its use of symbols, and its written presentation of information. Schell (cited in Reehm & Long, 1996) maintains that mathematics texts can contain more concepts per line, sentence, and paragraph than any other kind of texts. One other significant factor that is many times overlooked is the social-cultural factor. Every culture uses different approaches and symbols to solve (Barwell, 2008; Brown, 2005). Barwell (2008) argued that teaching mathematics to ESL learners is challenging and difficult. ESL students come with different languages, expectations, experiences and with varying levels of proficiencies in all the language domains as well as academic readiness and preparedness. The creation and application of a universal technique would greatly help. This technique would recommend general and broad principles that would serve as a starting point for reflection: (1) be sensitive of the specific linguistic requirements of mathematics and, where appropriate, highlight and discuss aspects of mathematical English with your students; (2) inquiring about ESL students’ home languages, their levels of proficiency, and their knowledge of mathematics in other languages; and (3) encourage ESL students’ mathematical know-how through discussion, problem solving and posing (Barwell, 2008). As teachers attempt to teach the skill of solving word problems and mathematical concepts, they must be sensitive to and aware of the needs of the ELL student as well as the specialized teaching methods needed when instructing ELL students. Is the mathematical problem presented in a contextualized manner which lends to better understanding? |
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Many times a mathematical text is void of the cultural or familial schema an ELL student can relate to or reference. When the language of math is so difficult, the teacher could try to use the student’s cultural framework to build an understanding of the context of a problem, and therefore make sure that the student’s lack of familiarity with the discourse features of math texts (Bente & Stanchina, 2005) does not keep the student from learning.
Education and Video Games
People can play and learn through video games, numerous people are using games to learn in no traditional environments, their agreement in the classroom as an instructional activity has been varied. Successes in informal learning have caused supporters to falsely believe that implementing them into the classroom would be an easy transition and have the potential to transform the complete educational system (Kenny & McDaniel, 2011).
Educators and researcher are interesting in computer video games since their sophistication has improved considerably over the last decade. Studies indicate simple video games touting educational benefits are common in classrooms (Rice, 2007). Oblinger (2006) and Gee (2005) argued that computer games have a potential way to provide learners with effective and fun learning environments if the game is built to incorporate learning principles. Although there is general support for the idea that games have an optimistic effect on the affective aspects of learning, there have produced mixed results of research on the role of play in promoting cognitive achievement and academic performance. Ke, Grabowski, Vogel and others have supported the potential of games for the emotional domain of learning and fostering a positive attitude toward learning (Kim & Chang, 2010).
Kim and Chang (2010) described the findings of Annetta, Mangrum, Holmes, Collazo, and Cheng who found significantly positive results in the students’ performance when they played math computer games. Also they described that in 2007 Ke and Grabowski measured the effects of cooperative computer game-playing on the math performance of 125 5th-graders compared with competitive game-playing and non-game-playing groups. They observed notably higher advance in math performance in both computer game-playing groups compared with the non-game-playing group.
Ke (2008) showed the arguments held by researchers for using computer game in education are: (a) Malone and Rieber argued that the computer games can raise intense engagement in learners (b) Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell said that the computer games can encourage active learning or learning by doing, (c) Ricci, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers stated that the empirical evidence exists that games can be effective tools for enhancing learning and understanding of complex subject matter, and (d) Kaptelin & Cole argued that computer games can foster collaboration among learners.
Second Language Acquisition.
There are several theories about acquisition of a second language. Understanding and accepting these theories are paramount and are crucial in establishing a support system for English Language Learners. Also, they need to know-how technology can support efforts to accomplish that. Technology could facilitate these efforts and be used to develop engaging activities for children.
This project is going to focus in Krashen’s and Vygotsky’s theory. Krashen (1985) developed the Comprehension Hypotheses Model and this model has five main hypotheses: a) the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, b) the Monitor hypothesis, c) the Natural Order hypothesis, d) the Input hypothesis, e) the Affective Filter hypothesis.
a) The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis is about the distinction between acquisition (implicitly) and learning (explicit, conscious).
b) The Monitor Hypothesis. The existence of a monitor that controls the production of the speaker.
c) The Natural Order Hypothesis. There is a certain order in the acquisition of various grammatical elements.
d) The Input Hypothesis. The input (i +1) to be offered to students should be only slightly more difficult than the level of knowledge they have.
e) The Affective Filter Hypothesis. It stated that student’s affective conditions have to be optimal to acquire the input.
From the aforementioned information, educators can apply these hypotheses to reduce the affective filter with motivation, and engaging activities. Using math games student can learn and develop language skills without stress.
The Zone of Proximal Development.
Zone of Proximal Development was proposed by Vygotsky (Lightbow and Spada, 2006), and it is the level of development to which an individual can rise with the help of others, which, applied to language learning is translated into the level the student can achieve with the help of an adult or more capable native.
References
Barwell, R. (2008). ESL in the mathematics classroom. WHAT WORKS? Research into Practice. Retrieved
from http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/ESL_math.pdf
Barton, M. L., Heidema, C., Jordan, D. (2002). Teaching reading in mathematics and science. Educational
Leadership, 60(3), 24-28.
Betne, P., & Stanchina, C. H. (2005). Mathematics and ESL: common ground and uncommon solutions. In Transit,
1(1). 1-4. Retrieved from http://ctl.laguardia.edu/journal/pdf/InTransit_v1n1_MathESL.pdf
Brown, C. L. (2005). Equity of literacy-based math performance assessments for English language learners.
Bilingual Research Journal, 29(2), 337-363
Devlin, K. (2011). Mathematics Education for a New Era. Video Games as a Medium for Learning.
Massachusets: A. K. Peters, Ltd.
English-language learners. (2004, August 4). Education Week. Retrieved from
http://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/english-language-learners/
English Language Learners in Math. (n.d.). Teaching Today. Retrieved from
http://teachingtoday.glencoe.com/howtoarticles/english-language-learners-in-math
Hirumi, A. (Ed.) (2012). Playing Games in School. Video Games and Simulations for Primary and Secondary
Education. Oregon: International Society for Technology in Education.
Ke, F. (2008). A case study of computer gaming for math: Engaged learning from gameplay? Computers &
Education, 51, 1609–1620
Kenny, R. F. & McDaniel, R. (2011). The role teachers’ expectations and value assessments of video games play
in their adopting and integrating them into their classrooms. British Journal of Educational Technology,
42(2), 197–213.
Kim, S., & Chang, M. (2010a). Does computer use promote the mathematical proficiency of ELL students? Journal
of Educational Computing Research, 42(3), 285-305.
Kim, S., & Chang, M. (2010b). Computer games for the math achievement of diverse students. Educational
Technology &Society, 13 (3), 224–232.
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. London: Longman
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Justin, M. (Producer). (2011). Using video games in the classroom. [Web Video]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=_2LRa5SStDk
Rice, J. W. (2077). Assessing Higher Order Thinking in Video Games. Jl. of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(1),
87-100.
Shapley, D. (2010). Kids spend nearly 55 hours a week watching TV, texting, playing video games… The Daily
Green. Retrieved from
http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/kids- television-47102701
Urquhart, V. (2009). Using Writing in Mathematics in Deepen Students Learning. McRel.
Voice of America. (Producer). (2009). Video games are new teaching tool . [Web Video]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nCaZrnstw8g&playnext=1&list=PL50B022BA2C78FCEE
What are cooperative and collaborative learning? (n. d.) Workshop: Cooperative and Collaborative Learning.
Retrieved from http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/coopcollab/index.html
Zach , W. (Producer), & Miki, M. (Producer) (2010). Games theory [Web]. Retrieved from
http://video.nytimes.com/video/2010/09/15/magazine/1248069030957/games-theory.html
Education and Video Games
People can play and learn through video games, numerous people are using games to learn in no traditional environments, their agreement in the classroom as an instructional activity has been varied. Successes in informal learning have caused supporters to falsely believe that implementing them into the classroom would be an easy transition and have the potential to transform the complete educational system (Kenny & McDaniel, 2011).
Educators and researcher are interesting in computer video games since their sophistication has improved considerably over the last decade. Studies indicate simple video games touting educational benefits are common in classrooms (Rice, 2007). Oblinger (2006) and Gee (2005) argued that computer games have a potential way to provide learners with effective and fun learning environments if the game is built to incorporate learning principles. Although there is general support for the idea that games have an optimistic effect on the affective aspects of learning, there have produced mixed results of research on the role of play in promoting cognitive achievement and academic performance. Ke, Grabowski, Vogel and others have supported the potential of games for the emotional domain of learning and fostering a positive attitude toward learning (Kim & Chang, 2010).
Kim and Chang (2010) described the findings of Annetta, Mangrum, Holmes, Collazo, and Cheng who found significantly positive results in the students’ performance when they played math computer games. Also they described that in 2007 Ke and Grabowski measured the effects of cooperative computer game-playing on the math performance of 125 5th-graders compared with competitive game-playing and non-game-playing groups. They observed notably higher advance in math performance in both computer game-playing groups compared with the non-game-playing group.
Ke (2008) showed the arguments held by researchers for using computer game in education are: (a) Malone and Rieber argued that the computer games can raise intense engagement in learners (b) Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell said that the computer games can encourage active learning or learning by doing, (c) Ricci, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers stated that the empirical evidence exists that games can be effective tools for enhancing learning and understanding of complex subject matter, and (d) Kaptelin & Cole argued that computer games can foster collaboration among learners.
Second Language Acquisition.
There are several theories about acquisition of a second language. Understanding and accepting these theories are paramount and are crucial in establishing a support system for English Language Learners. Also, they need to know-how technology can support efforts to accomplish that. Technology could facilitate these efforts and be used to develop engaging activities for children.
This project is going to focus in Krashen’s and Vygotsky’s theory. Krashen (1985) developed the Comprehension Hypotheses Model and this model has five main hypotheses: a) the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, b) the Monitor hypothesis, c) the Natural Order hypothesis, d) the Input hypothesis, e) the Affective Filter hypothesis.
a) The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis is about the distinction between acquisition (implicitly) and learning (explicit, conscious).
b) The Monitor Hypothesis. The existence of a monitor that controls the production of the speaker.
c) The Natural Order Hypothesis. There is a certain order in the acquisition of various grammatical elements.
d) The Input Hypothesis. The input (i +1) to be offered to students should be only slightly more difficult than the level of knowledge they have.
e) The Affective Filter Hypothesis. It stated that student’s affective conditions have to be optimal to acquire the input.
From the aforementioned information, educators can apply these hypotheses to reduce the affective filter with motivation, and engaging activities. Using math games student can learn and develop language skills without stress.
The Zone of Proximal Development.
Zone of Proximal Development was proposed by Vygotsky (Lightbow and Spada, 2006), and it is the level of development to which an individual can rise with the help of others, which, applied to language learning is translated into the level the student can achieve with the help of an adult or more capable native.
References
Barwell, R. (2008). ESL in the mathematics classroom. WHAT WORKS? Research into Practice. Retrieved
from http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/ESL_math.pdf
Barton, M. L., Heidema, C., Jordan, D. (2002). Teaching reading in mathematics and science. Educational
Leadership, 60(3), 24-28.
Betne, P., & Stanchina, C. H. (2005). Mathematics and ESL: common ground and uncommon solutions. In Transit,
1(1). 1-4. Retrieved from http://ctl.laguardia.edu/journal/pdf/InTransit_v1n1_MathESL.pdf
Brown, C. L. (2005). Equity of literacy-based math performance assessments for English language learners.
Bilingual Research Journal, 29(2), 337-363
Devlin, K. (2011). Mathematics Education for a New Era. Video Games as a Medium for Learning.
Massachusets: A. K. Peters, Ltd.
English-language learners. (2004, August 4). Education Week. Retrieved from
http://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/english-language-learners/
English Language Learners in Math. (n.d.). Teaching Today. Retrieved from
http://teachingtoday.glencoe.com/howtoarticles/english-language-learners-in-math
Hirumi, A. (Ed.) (2012). Playing Games in School. Video Games and Simulations for Primary and Secondary
Education. Oregon: International Society for Technology in Education.
Ke, F. (2008). A case study of computer gaming for math: Engaged learning from gameplay? Computers &
Education, 51, 1609–1620
Kenny, R. F. & McDaniel, R. (2011). The role teachers’ expectations and value assessments of video games play
in their adopting and integrating them into their classrooms. British Journal of Educational Technology,
42(2), 197–213.
Kim, S., & Chang, M. (2010a). Does computer use promote the mathematical proficiency of ELL students? Journal
of Educational Computing Research, 42(3), 285-305.
Kim, S., & Chang, M. (2010b). Computer games for the math achievement of diverse students. Educational
Technology &Society, 13 (3), 224–232.
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. London: Longman
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Justin, M. (Producer). (2011). Using video games in the classroom. [Web Video]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=_2LRa5SStDk
Rice, J. W. (2077). Assessing Higher Order Thinking in Video Games. Jl. of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(1),
87-100.
Shapley, D. (2010). Kids spend nearly 55 hours a week watching TV, texting, playing video games… The Daily
Green. Retrieved from
http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/kids- television-47102701
Urquhart, V. (2009). Using Writing in Mathematics in Deepen Students Learning. McRel.
Voice of America. (Producer). (2009). Video games are new teaching tool . [Web Video]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nCaZrnstw8g&playnext=1&list=PL50B022BA2C78FCEE
What are cooperative and collaborative learning? (n. d.) Workshop: Cooperative and Collaborative Learning.
Retrieved from http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/coopcollab/index.html
Zach , W. (Producer), & Miki, M. (Producer) (2010). Games theory [Web]. Retrieved from
http://video.nytimes.com/video/2010/09/15/magazine/1248069030957/games-theory.html